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The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), flourishing between 3300 BCE and 1300 BCE, stands as one of the earliest complex societies of the ancient world. Spread across northwestern India and Pakistan, its cities—Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, and Rakhigarhi—were highly urbanized and interconnected. While its script remains undeciphered, archaeology provides significant evidence that trade was central to its economy, both within the civilization and with distant cultures.

Internal Trade and Economic Exchange

The Harappans maintained a sophisticated system of internal trade that linked agricultural producers, craft specialists, and urban populations.

• Agricultural Surplus: Farmers produced wheat, barley, rice, sesame, peas, dates, and cotton. Cotton cultivation, in particular, was a hallmark of the civilization—making the Indus Valley the first known society to weave and trade cotton textiles.
• Craft Goods: Skilled artisans manufactured beads, shell bangles, pottery, ornaments, and tools. Bead-making centers such as Chanhudaro and Lothal produced carnelian and steatite beads that were highly sought after.
• Specialization: Certain cities developed niche trades—for example, Dholavira specialized in stone-working, while Lothal became a hub for maritime trade.

Trade was facilitated by standardized weights and measures, often cubical in shape and made of chert. This uniformity across the vast Indus territory indicates centralized regulation and trust in transactions.

Long-Distance and International Trade

The Harappans were not an isolated people; their merchants reached far beyond the subcontinent.

• Mesopotamian Connections: Cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia refer to a distant land called Meluhha, which most scholars identify as the Indus region. Indus seals, beads, and ivory have been unearthed in Mesopotamian sites like Ur and Susa. Likewise, Mesopotamian cylinder seals and artifacts reached the Indus cities.
• Afghanistan and Central Asia: Through overland caravans, the Indus Valley accessed lapis lazuli from Badakhshan, turquoise, and precious metals.
• Persian Gulf Trade: The Harappans traded via seaports in present-day Gujarat, sailing across the Arabian Sea to Dilmun (modern Bahrain) and Mesopotamia.
• South India Links: Evidence suggests trade with the Deccan and South India, especially for gold and semi-precious stones.

Goods Exported

• Cotton textiles (a unique innovation of the Indus people).
• Beads, jewelry, and semi-precious stones like carnelian and agate.
• Shell objects, ivory products, and finely crafted pottery.
• Copper tools and bronze implements.

Goods Imported

• Gold from South India and Afghanistan.
• Silver from Persia and Afghanistan.
• Tin from Iran and Central Asia (crucial for bronze production).
• Lapis lazuli, turquoise, and other semi-precious stones.
• Wool, luxury goods, and possibly wine and olive oil from Mesopotamia.

Methods of Trade

Overland Routes

Trade caravans carried goods along rugged routes through Baluchistan, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, connecting to Mesopotamia and Persia. Pack animals like oxen and donkeys, as well as carts with solid wooden wheels, served as transport.

Maritime Trade

One of the most remarkable aspects of Indus commerce was maritime trade. Archaeological discoveries at Lothal include a large dockyard, stone anchors, and evidence of shipbuilding, suggesting organized sea trade. Harappan ships likely hugged the coastline of the Arabian Sea, stopping at Persian Gulf ports.

Seals and Tokens

Seals made of steatite, engraved with animals and symbols, were used to stamp goods and bales. These may have served as early forms of trademarks, identifying merchants, cities, or guilds. Their widespread presence in foreign lands indicates the Harappans had a recognized system of commercial identity.

Organization and Regulation

The uniformity of weights, measures, and seals points to a highly organized system of trade, possibly overseen by city authorities or councils rather than monarchs (since no evidence of kingship has been found). The absence of temples or palaces in Harappan cities also suggests that trade and commerce, rather than political or religious dominance, formed the backbone of their economy.

Conclusion

The Indus Valley Civilization’s trading methods reveal an economy that was diverse, regulated, and internationally connected. By relying on standardized measurements, internal specialization, overland caravans, and maritime trade networks, the Harappans established themselves as pioneers of early commerce. Their goods traveled across Asia, linking farming villages, urban centers, and distant empires. Though their script remains undeciphered, their material culture tells the story of a people who mastered the art of exchange, laying the foundations of global trade long before modern economies emerged.